Design Argument for the existence of God Essay

The Design Argument can be split into two sides: design qua purpose and design qua regularity. The key idea of design qua purpose comes from William Paley. He used analogy as the basis for his argument, noting how the complex design of a watch allows all the parts to work together perfectly to achieve its purpose. He then noted the complexity, order and purpose of the universe, stating that â€Å"every manifestation on design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature.† Therefore if a watch’s intricacy stands as evidence that it has been designed, by analogy the universe must also have a designer and, as the designer is required to be supremely powerful, the designer must be God. Aquinas also presented an argument to support design qua purpose. Similarly to Paley, he argued that all natural occurrences show evidence of design. He claimed that this suggested there is a being which directs all things, and as humans have knowledge this being must also be knowledgeable. Therefore there is an intelligent being that directs everything towards its purpose, and Aquinas stated that this being must be God. Unlike Paley, Aquinas explained that God is a designer at work who continues to direct us towards our purpose as well as regulating the universe (e.g. the planets and the seasons). He also attempted to explain how free-will plays a part in design, claiming that we are programmed to reproduce but free-will allows us to choose who we reproduce with. Through these points he also demonstrated a key aspect of the design qua regularity side of the Teleological Argument. Another aspect of the argument is the anthropic principle, which was first introduced by F.R. Tennant. The significant difference of this principle to Paley and Aquinas’ ideas is that it doesn’t reject the scientific principles for existence, as Tennant said that the conditions for the development of human life were intrinsic to the Big Bang. The strong principle says that the reason and purpose of the universe is to support human life, supported by the way the conditions on earth are perfect in order for us to survive.  For example, the atmosphere is 21% Oxygen which is near enough the exact amount that humans need. Consequently a greater being created the universe to support us, and the only being powerful enough to do so is God. On the other hand, the weak anthropic principle doesn’t accept that life was inevitable from the beginning and instead suggests that it just happened to have occurred. Richard Swinburne developed this by suggesting that the creation of the universe came down to probabilities rather than chance. He recognised that the universe could have easily been chaotic, but the fact that it isn’t suggests some element of design. Tennant described this as the world being â€Å"compatible with a single throw of a dice†, and said that â€Å"common sense is not foolish in suspecting the dice is loaded.† This explains how Swinburne and Tennant believed that it took an incredibly small singularity to create the cosmic explosion which created the universe, but the order and purpose is so beyond chance that there must have been a greater being behind it. This therefore shows how the anthropic principle is used to prove the existence of God. This principle has been supported by many other philosophers, including Fred Hoyle and Anthony Flew. Comment on the claim that this argument totally fails to prove the existence of God Charles Darwin used the idea of ‘Natural Selection’ to challenge the Design Argument. This is a theory that claims that the strongest and most adapted species survive and therefore species develop and evolve naturally through time. Darwin argued that the illusion of design is actually a result of natural and random process caused by Natural Selection, and not by God as the designer. Steve Jones described this process as â€Å"a series of successful mistakes†, which again doubts the involvement of God in the design of species. Nevertheless, Christians could object to this disproving that the Design Argument proves the existence of God as the anthropic principle suggests that Natural Selection and Evolution are caused by God, as they are too unlikely to have occurred by chance. As a result, one would argue that Darwin’s theory doesn’t hold up under its counter argument because Natural Selection can still occur with God being the designer of the universe. Freud also questions the Design Argument’s success at proving the existence of God in his book ‘The Future of an Illusion’. In it, he describes religious faith as an illusion based on wishful thinking, arguing that religion exists because people fear living in a chaotic and unordered world. Therefore we project order on to the universe out of fear and so our minds are predisposed to see order. Freud uses this idea to dispute that the order and regularity of the universe is a result of design, thus questioning the existence of God overall. One would say that Freud’s argument supports the claim that the Design Argument fails to prove God’s existence as it suggests that the universe is in fact not ordered perfectly as we perceive, and so God’s work as a designer is an illusion arisen from fear of chaos. Additionally, the Epicurean Hypothesis disputes that the designer of the universe could be the God of classic theism by exploring the idea of evil and suffering. Epicuris says that if God is willing to prevent evil but isn’t able to then he can’t be omnipotent, and if he’s able but not willing then he can’t be benevolent. From this argument, he concluded that either God isn’t the God of classic theism or God isn’t the designer of the universe at all. On the other hand, Christians could counter this by arguing that evil and suffering is a test from God as an opportunity to prove our faith to him. Therefore based on this, evil and suffering doesn’t disprove that God is the ultimate designer. However, the argument still stands as if God was omniscient he wouldn’t need to test people as he would know whether or not they were faithful. Also permitting evil and suffering would still make him malevolent. Consequently  one would say that the Epicurean Hypothesis still supports that the Design Argument fails to prove the existence of God. Overall, despite the Design Argument’s in depth ideas such as the anthropic principle and design qua purpose and regularity, there are stronger scholarly arguments to support the claim that the Design Argument fails to prove the existence of God. Although the use of Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection can be cancelled out by its counter, Freud’s idea of illusion both successfully argues that the apparent design is created out of fear of chaos and not the result of a supremely powerful source, and the Epicurean Hypothesis argues that the God of classic theism can’t exist under the premise of evil and suffering. Therefore these ideas effectively support that the Design Argument doesn’t prove that God exists.

Gender stereotypes are still pervasive in our culture Essay

TOPIC AND RATIONALE Gender stereotyping is a topic we find all around us and without exception in early years settings. There is a set of notions about how girls/women and boys/men are expected to behave in society, therefore is very difficult not to transmit those ideas in Early Education. Often we find children which already have implemented a gender role and behave based on our assigned sex. I have chosen this subject because I am aware, as I have to deal with that every single day, of how gender stereotype affects people. I believe the best way to fight this issue is through education and promoting gender equality in early childhood settings. At my placement I have already seen several situations where girls dress in pink as they consider is their favorite color, draw and wish to be princesses and would like to be ballerinas when they grow up. Boys spend all the playground time playing football or using their imaginary gangs, dressing in dark colors or not allowing girls playing in the building construction area claiming that is not a game for them. Being personally affected and observing this conduct in young children at the childhood practice setting and in the nursery where I work, was my motivation to write about this interesting topic, which in some situations touch children subtlety, and in others can trigger a negative impact affecting in many ways their being. AIM AND OBJECTIVES My target is to find out if gender equality is promoted in early years settings. RELEVANT THEORIES AND APPROACHES to children’s learning and development and links with knowledge acquired through the HNC HOW TOPIC LINKS TO CHILDREN’S INDIVIDUAL NEEDS, RIGHTS, AND INTERESTS Gender Equality is at the core of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) which outlines in a few articles the relevance of the equality rights for all children independently of their gender. The Article 2 is directly related to the topic chosen and promotes non-discrimination. The Article 12 and 13 determinates the respect for the views of the child and their freedom of expression. Both of them encourage children to express their thoughts and feelings freely. Those right are important in the subject because their voices can be taken seriously if they feel affected by gender discrimination. The Articles 28 and 29 talk about rights and goals of education. Those articles promote education with the respect of the human rights including themselves, addressing gender discrimination and supporting equality among girls and boys. Finally, we have to have into consideration Article 4 which states that governments have to create systems and laws to promote and protect children rights, enabling all the above rights possible. Here a summary of the articles mentioned are shown: †¢ Article 2 – â€Å"The Convention applies to every child without discrimination, whatever their ethnicity, gender, religion, language, abilities or any other status, whatever they think or say, whatever their family background.† †¢ Article 12 – â€Å"Every child has the right to express their views, feelings, and wishes in all matters affecting them, and to have their views considered and taken seriously. This right applies at all times, for example during immigration proceedings, housing decisions or the child’s day-to-day home life.† †¢ Article 13 – â€Å"Every child must be free to express their thoughts and opinions and to access all kinds of information, as long as it is within the law.† †¢ Article 28 –â€Å"Every child has the right to an education. Primary education must be free and different forms of secondary education must be available to every child. Discipline in schools must respect children’s dignity and their rights. Richer countries must help poorer countries achieve this.† †¢ Article 29 – â€Å"Education must develop every child’s personality, talents, and abilities to the full. It must encourage the child’s respect for human rights, as well as respect for their parents, their own and other cultures, and the environment.† †¢ Article 4 – â€Å"Governments must do all they can to make sure every child can enjoy their rights by creating systems and passing laws that promote and protect children’s rights.†

Nutritional needs Essay

Protein 4 calories/ g 0.8 g / kg / day Meat Fish Chicken Eggs Dairy Insufficient intake leads to muscle wasting and atrophy Carbohydrates 4 calories / g Starches Sugars (fructose, glucose, lactose, sucrose) and cellulose Fruits Vegetables Milk Grains Insufficient intake results in protein and fat metabolism Fats 9 calories / g Needed for ADEK vitamin absorption Animal products Egg yolks Organ meats (except liver) Butter Cheese Oils Insufficient intake increases risk of infection, skin lesions, amenorrhea, and cold sensitivity Thiamin (B1) Pork Wheat germ Fortified cereals Insufficiency leads to Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome Riboflavin (B2) Milk Enriched grains Insufficiency leads to Ariboflavinosis Niacin (B3) Peanuts Legumes Enriched grains Insufficiency leads to diarrhea, dementia, dermatitis Cobalamin (B12) Animal protein Insufficiency leads to pernicious anemia Folic Acid Orange juice Meat Leafy green vegetables Insufficiency leads to anemia and neural tube defects Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C): wound healing, hormone synthesis Citrus fruits Insufficiency leads to scurvy, bleeding gums Vitamin A: vision, tissue growth, immune, reproductive function Animal foods Fruits Vegetables Fortified milk Insufficiency leads to night blindness, xerophthalmia Vitamin D: calcium and phosphorus metabolism, PTH, kidney Dairy Fortified food sources Insufficiency leads to rickets, osteomalacia Vitamin E: antioxidant, immune Vegetable oil Peanuts Margarine Insufficiency leads to hemolysis of RBCs Vitamin K: blood clotting Liver Leafy green vegetables Insufficiency leads to hemorrhage Potassium Apricots Avocado Bananas Cantaloupes Raw carrots Peas / Dried beans Dried fruits Oranges Peanuts Potatoes Prune juice Spinach Tomatoes Winter squash Calcium (also use for kidney stones) Chocolate Dairy Beans Lentils Dried fruits Canned / smoked fish (except tuna) Flour Cocoa Green leafy vegetables Tyramine / Dopamine Restrictions (for people taking MAOIs) Aged Cheese Chocolate Smoked fish Processed meats Bananas Liver Fava beans Soy sauce Purine (gout / uric acid stones) Organ meats Anchovies Sardines Salmon Herring Venison Goose Beef, chicken, pork, veal should be limited because they contain purine Alcohol Seafood Oxalates (kidney stones) Asparagus Beets Celery Cabbage Dark green leafy vegetables Fruits Tomatoes Green beans Chocolate Cocoa Beer Cola Nuts Tea Acid-Ash Foods (will acidify urine to prevent UTI and avoid if patient has acidic stones) Cranberries Plums Grapes Prunes Tomatoes Eggs Cheese Whole grains Meat Poultry

Behavioural Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Behavioural Studies - Essay Example The first theory I would like to discuss is Clayton Alfred’s ERG theory. ERG means Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Alfred built his theory on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, collapsing his five levels of needs into three categories. Existences needs are strivings for physiological and material well-being (or safety and physiological needs in terms of Maslow). Relatedness needs are desires to have satisfactory interpersonal relationships (social needs in Maslow’s terms). Growth needs are humans striving for psychological growth and development (levels of esteem and self-actualization in Maslow’s model). This model assumes that unsatisfied needs serve as motivators for work. As people satisfy the lower level needs they strive to achieve the needs of upper levels. However, if it is impossible to satisfy these needs, people may move own the hierarchy revealing the so called frustration-regression principle. That is – when a higher level needs can not be satisfied, the needs of the lower level may be reactivated and become motivators again. This peculiarity of human behavior allows capitalizing on the importance of higher level needs. A manager should provide opportunities for growth and good workplace climate, two motivators preserving and enhancing employee loyalty and desire to work for the organization. Another useful theory is that of acquired needs elaborated by David McClelland. The basic presupposition is that each individual has specific needs of his own and these needs are learned through life experience. There are three needs motivating people in work. Need for achievement drives to excel. Need for power makes people develop leader qualities. Need for affiliation is the desire to have good interpersonal relationships and avoid conflicts. Depending on employee needs a manager can tailor specific tasks and environment motivating people. High achievers

Take home exam for law and ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Take home exam for law and ethics - Essay Example It is in this respect wherein the concept of the best practices in corporate governance emerged. An important element that constitutes best practices in corporate governance is transparency. This can be in the form of disclosure, which most capital markets require from its listed companies. What is recommended here is for such corporate policy to be codified as part of the organization’s rules and regulations. For example, Berghe wrote that majority of best practices in corporate governance in the area of transparency is the explicit rule in the code that financial performance, including the related interests of the members of the board should be reported in the annual report to shareholders.1 In addition to the disclosure of the financial reports, best practices mandate that other pertinent information should also be made available, including, but not limited to, instances of share ownership and voting rights. The names of the board members, managers (including their compensation) should not remain hidden as well. The significance of these variables variable has been demonstrated in the bankruptcy of Enron. It was only during the intense media and government scrutiny after the company announced its financial woes that the exorbitant compensation packages of its executives were revealed along with its â€Å"creative† accounting practices. Certainly, the importance of disclosure in corporate governance is particularly highlighted during crises. If full transparency is ensured, audit, performance evaluations, and other assessments and mechanisms can function properly in order to ensure that the organization is on track in achieving its objectives and compatible with sound corporate governance. Another component of best practices is the explicit rule in a corporate code of best practices to establish ethical and corporate governance standards. A number of stock

How Information Technology has Improved Management Process Research Paper

How Information Technology has Improved Management Process - Research Paper Example Following are some definitions. As described by Nirav S., management processes are defined as those processes which are performed by managers. Managers are commonly involved in planning, organizing, directing, motivating, controlling and decision-making. (Nirav, 2012) Management processes can be of many types and have many aspects attached to them. Information Technology: As per the free dictionary, Information Technology is defined as the development, installation, and implementation of computer systems and applications. (â€Å"Information Technology†, 2009) Information technology has affected organization and organization processes in many ways. It has changed the basic management approach by enabling them to access data from multiple sources at one time and then use this data in their basic functions of planning, controlling, decision making, leadership etc. As laid down by Eatock, Paul and Serrano in their research paper IT is considered one of the most important enablers of process change. (Eatock, Paul & Serrano, 2000) As described by Garvin there are three approaches to organization processes explained in the table below. EXHIBIT 1 An Organizational Processes Framework Work Processes Behavioral Processes Change Processes Definition Sequences of activities that transform inputs into outputs. Widely shared patterns of behavior and ways of acting / interacting. Sequences of events over time. Role Accomplish the work of the organization. Infuse and shape the way work is conducted by influencing how individuals and groups behave. Alter the scale, character, and identity of the organization. Major Categories Operational and administrative. Individual and personal. Autonomous and induced, incremental and revolutionary. Examples New product development, order fulfillment, strategic planning. Decision making, communication, organizational learning. Creation, growth, transformation, and decline. (Garvin, 1998) Management Processes In this part the managemen t processes are discussed in detail and a step by step approach to management processes before and after the implementation of Information Technology is discussed and compared so as to arrive at the advantages Information Technology has brought for the managers in carrying out the main management processes and decisions. There can be many types of management process like work processes, behavioral processes, and change process. However, all the said management processes are undertaken in the same step by step approach. As highlighted by Garvin, common examples of processes include new-product development, order fulfillment, and customer service; less obvious but equally legitimate candidates are resource allocation and decision making. (Garvin, 1998)

Secondary Data Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Secondary Data - Assignment Example h this comprises the integrity of the data to some extent since it is not gathered directly from the source (Christensen, Johnson & Turner, 2010); some studies require data that cannot be gathered directly or it can be unethical to expose participants directly to research conditions (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). Data that is gathered in such indirect ways is called secondary data; and when used appropriately, it can provide valuable information about the population (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). An example of a study using Secondary Data would be one that attempted to evaluate the changes in the manner and extent to which depression was reported over a decade at a campus clinic that caters to the students of a university. A study like this would want to study the number of cases reported; the symptoms described; and the treatment suggested and chosen as well as the number of cases that reported recovery and the time taken to achieve this recovery. The data required for this study is historical data that is available from the case files available at the clinic. The participants in this study would be the persons who were diagnosed with Depression; and it would be unethical to remind them of their illness – particularly since it can raise painful memories especially for participants who had to struggle with the illness for a long time (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). Also, participants who were diagnosed many years back may not remember the symptoms well; or the details of the treatment they took, and may not be able to provide details. These details can be taken from the case files; and will provide a more accurate representation; although using the case files limits the scope of the research to the details available (Christensen, Johnson & Turner, 2010). If the participant provided inaccurate information, this cannot be evaluated; nor can it provide information about people who did not approach the clinic but were depressed nevertheless.

Culture and Health Applying Medical Anthropology Essay

Culture and Health Applying Medical Anthropology - Essay Example Examples of risk factors are: smoking, bad sexual practices and bad hygiene, while examples of protective factors are: sexual restrictions such as monogamy. It is due to these risk and protective factors that some cultures are known for some diseases, while some other cultures stand lesser risks of contracting certain types of diseases (Winkelman 20). There are some environmental and social conditions that affect the health of my community, Montclair, New Jersey. One of the environmental conditions that have had a negative impact on New Jersey is traffic congestion. This is due to the increase in the volume of vehicles that ply the Montclair route from time to time. The effect that the increased volume of vehicles in the city has on the health of the residents of the city is that it makes them have climate-related health problems. The emission of greenhouse gases by these vehicles causes air pollution and the effect is that it would alter the balance of the climate in the region and the world at large (Silver 27-29). It has also been observed that the number of smokers in the city have increased rapidly. Smokers stand the risk of contracting heart related diseases and could also get diseases that would affect some vital organs of their body.

Refelction and discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Refelction and discussion - Essay Example While the major decisions and the exercise of accounting prerogatives are performed by the senior accountant, I learnt a lot about the demands of the profession by performing the regular or routine work such as executing the trial balance of the statement of financial condition or reconciling the sales balances for the month. Aside from helping in the preparation of the financial statements for the firm, I occasionally was asked to do some tasks that had to do with the individual projects which the construction firm was involved in. It happens to be a much more difficult accounting for projects rather than for the company in its entirety because projects have a budget that was drawn pursuant to the terms of the contract, and the interpretation of accounts, allocation of expenses, and reconciliation of records and activities pertaining to the project can be difficult while the project is in progress. For a short while I was assigned to other sections to gain a better grasp of the acco unting procedures involved in those areas. While the stay in each section was brief and the work I was asked to perform was only routine, my brief exposure nevertheless added to my appreciation of the manner in which the job was done and the significance of the function of the section in the overall department. There are a number of skills I developed in the course of the program, the most of important of which is the set of people skills which I needed to deal with my superiors, co-workers and team mates, and with the clients who would consult occasionally concerning the progress of the projects. I also dealt on a regular basis with staff from the other departments, coordinating with counterparts in procurement, engineering, and marketing. From this I discovered that the organisation is more than just a rigid structure that governs people. An organisation is a dynamic set of relationships among its members who interact with one another to successfully achieve the organisationâ€⠄¢s strategic goal. As mentioned, I worked under the supervision of a senior accountant. She has been in the profession for several years and with the construction company for almost the same duration. From her, I had learnt that because of the specialised knowledge which our profession implies, we are held to a higher standard of ethics than most other workers in the organisation. This is because we, as accounting and finance professionals, are relied upon by all major stakeholders who deal with the organisation, such as the management, shareholders or business owners, the government and regulators. I learnt in school that the position of an accountant or financier is imbued with trust, but it was only during the internship that I came to realise what this actually means in practice, and it is such a profound responsibility. There are other things about which I had been taught in school, but had only come to fully appreciate during the internship. I had gained a greater self-confid ence during the program and began to trust my abilities and my decisions in addressing the tasks of my job. I learnt to face clients with a greater sense of self-assuredness by understanding that the service was all about satisfying their needs in the most convenient way possible for them. I also learnt the value of team work, particularly where

Pragmatism Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pragmatism - Coursework Example The underlying principle is to raise the level of entrepreneurship activities that are considered to be below the social optimum. The implementation can be done directly to address the needs of the entrepreneur. The policies can be modeled in the form of a series of inputs that starts with the change in culture followed d by general and specific developments in skills. Pragmatism is a tradition of philosophy that began in the U.S around 1870. The term refers to the rejection of the idea that the function of thinking is to describe the reality. According to pragmatists, thoughts are a product of the interaction between the environment and organisms. When it comes to entrepreneurship, there is eminent risk in the decision making processes. In this case, the notion of pragmatism suggests that the entrepreneur has the ability to put ideas to the test (Dye, 2010). He/she should ensure that the ideas have a certain degree of truth in them. When the ideas are applied in the real world, they should be workable. In such a case, the notion of pragmatism becomes a philosophy of experience. Moreover, there have been marked changes in pragmatism over the past twenty

Symbolic Debate in AI versus Connectionist - Competing or Complementar Essay

Symbolic Debate in AI versus Connectionist - Competing or Complementary - Essay Example If the aim of human-oriented Artificial Intelligence is to develop common sense, an extreme example of the purely symbolic approach is to be seen in the Cyc project. Here, common-sense rules inferred from the everyday world are hard-coded into the system such that it will be able to handle any type of situation. And it is in this â€Å"extremely symbolic† approach that the worst failures of that approach will probably be seen: forget one fact, and the system crashes, with nothing to lean back on.On the other hand, best-suited to the connectionist approach are models of the brain at the micro-level. The brain is, after all, a neural network—literally. The problem here is that we get a working model, but with a very little description of what is actually going on inside, and the question begs to be asked (by connectionists, of course): why model it if it cannot be explained?The natural thought is that there must be some way the two systems can â€Å"co-operate.† Co nsider an interesting problem, one that may seem far-fetched but which is good enough to serve as an example: that of nonsense translation, as in â€Å"English French German Suite,† quoted in Gà ¶del, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (Douglas Hofstadter, 1979, page 366). Here, a translation into German by Robert Scott of Lewis Carroll’s Jabberwocky is presented. The English stanza’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves†¦All mimsy were the borogoves,And the mome raths outgrabe.†Gets translated into the German asâ€Å"Es Brillig war. Die schlichten Toven†¦Und aller-mà ¼msige BurggovenDie Mà ¶hmen Rà ¤th’ ausgraben.†Consider â€Å"outgrabe†: how would one â€Å"translate† it into German? It turns out that â€Å"out† is â€Å"aus† in German, and â€Å"grab† sounds perfectly German; add to that the common German â€Å"-en† suffix and one gets â€Å"ausgraben.† Similar principles apply to the translation of all the nonsense words here.

Roles of Women Essay Example for Free

Roles of Women Essay The configuration of a womans identity consists of the expectations that society places on her. Such expectations are still in existence today. Authors from the nineteenth and twentieth century are using literature and poetry as a vehicle for the new role and passion of the woman. Such authors as Kate Chopin, Mary Wilkins Freeman, Marge Piercy, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Henry James evoke a new sense of expectations for women in their use of literary language. One must acknowledge the differences in the expected roles of women and those the authors are portraying in order to penetrate the effect the author is trying to convey. These authors go beyond the norm and give women hope for the future. Kate Chopin creates a female character in At the Cadian Ball and The Storm that is vivid and defiant. Calixta is the image of hope that an authentic woman dares to embody. Chopin challenges society in her literature. She tests the roles of women. For instance, the female character she depicts in The Storm and The Cadian Ball is sexually overbearing, an adulterous, and presumptuous. Radek suggest that women of the nineteenth century were not supposed to have any real sexual contact before their marriage. The characteristics that Calixta possesses are dissimilar to the expected roles of women. The women of this time should be reserved, subservient, compliant, and gentle creatures. Henry James paints a picture of a similar vixen in Daisy Miller, although Daisy is innocent and naive in her promiscuity. James, no doubt being male, depicts women in a role outside of that of society. He portrays Daisy as innocently flirtatious. While this is not completely immoral, it is defiant of a placid nature. Mary Wilkins Freeman does not create as much controversy as Chopin, although she does create characters that embody independence rather than subservience. In The New England Nun, Louisa encompasses the typical homemaker characteristics, but she withstands independence when she rejects submission to Dagget, while declining to marry him. Wilkins expresses the hindered spirit of rebellion in The Revolt of Mother. She uses her words to convey the rebellious attitude the woman feels and is dared to communicate. She expresses the anger and uprising women are mandated to keep silent. Poetry is a vehicle for thought provoking expression that flows gently. Such poets as Edna St. Vincent Millay and Marge Piercy communicate their thoughts through the flow of language. Edna St. Vincent Millay writes in an emotional upheaval. In I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed, she transmits her despairing and vulnerable attitude. Marge Piercy writes from the corner in which women confine themselves. She portrays the loneliness that one feels because of the expectations that society places on them. The character in Barbie Doll is driven to suicide because she falls short of these expectations. This poem plays out the helplessness of the woman, while Whats That Smell in the Kitchen portrays the womans rebellious nature. This wife is tired of being socially correct and acts out in fits of rage. Kate Chopin, Mary Wilkins Freeman, Marge Piercy, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Henry James are writers of today. They innovate the true desires, passions, and frustrations of the American woman. While many of them are unable to articulate their inner desires and frustrations through physical expression, due to social restraints, they are able to express these emotions through their writing. This vehicle of emotion is a channel for the mind, body, and soul because of societys secluding forces. These authors are able to play out the roles that they desire, those roles that are unmentionable, through their words. Their words are the true expression of a womans mind and feelings, while society believes that women are not suppose to behave or feel these ways. Hartman says that a womens God-given role was as wife and mother, keeper of the household, guardian of the moral purity of all who lived therein. In conclusion, through the years, it is prevalent that the inner woman bears similar characteristics. Women are consistently making a way through life to gain equality to men. They desire to express the emotions and passions they possess while stepping outside of the societal standards. Chopin uses Calixta as a symbolic representation of the womans sexual emotions that are forcibly in suppression. Freeman symbolizes independence in the character she creates. Millay, simply, expresses her emotions and frustrations as a woman. Piercy articulates the bondage that a woman is under due to the roles and appearances they are expected to maintain. Henry James, not being a woman, creates Daisy, a woman filled with innocent flirtation. This is a characteristic outside of the reserved, subservient expectation. Though these authors may be the initiation of controversy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, their rebellious illustrations are, no doubt, compelling to readers today. Works Cited Chopin, Kate. At the Cadian Ball . Chopin, Kate. The Storm . Freeman, Mary W. A New England Nun . Freeman, Mary W. The Revolt of Mother American Literature, vol 2, 6th ed. William E. Cane. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 145-159. Hartman, Dorothy. Womens Roles in the Late 19th Century. 10 Aug. 2005 http://www. connerprairie. org/historyonline/1880wom. html. James, Henry. Daisy Miller http://ci. moc. edu/webapps/portal/frameset. jsp? tab =coursesurl=/bin/common/course. pl? course_id=_367_1. Millay, Edna St. Vincent. I Being Born A Woman and Distressed American Literature, vol 2, 6th ed. William E. Cane. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 575. Piercy, Marge. Barbie Doll American Literature, vol 2, 6th ed. William E. Cane. New York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 1453. Piercy, Marge. Whats That Smell in the Kitchen? . Radek, Kimberly. Women in Literature. 9 Aug. 2005 http://www. ivcc. edu/GEN2002/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century. htm. Victorian Lace. 12 July 2005 http://www. geocities. com/victorianlace10/women. html. Wyatt, Neal. Biography of Kate Chopin. 1995 http://www. vcu. edu/engweb/eng384/katebio. htm

Strategies to Integrate Children with Dyspraxia

Strategies to Integrate Children with Dyspraxia Dyspraxia is a learning disability that comes in three forms verbal, motor and oral whereby the child may have average or above average intelligence but the brain works in a different manner it is hard for the child to demonstrate their knowledge, i.e. reading comprehension may be affected because the processing of the information is different, as with verbal and/or written/symbolic comprehension. The problem with such a learning difficulty makes it hard for teachers to evaluate the progress and intelligence of the child and normal learning assignments and exams may prove an impossible form of evaluation. Therefore it is essential that the teacher works with the child to understand the learning processes of the child, attempting to provide methods that will either enable the child to take part in normal forms of evaluation or endeavor to produce an alternative form, but equivalent to the mainstream evaluation. Dyspraxia can be remedied in part by retraining and advancing the child’s method of expressing their comprehension and evaluation. This is a pertinent role of the teacher, because to separate the child may have adverse effects as the child can comprehend internally the information only it expression is less advanced. Therefore this discussion will explore some theories of teaching methods comparing and contrasting the benefits of one-on-one teaching to that of mainstream teaching at the foundation level. It will also highlight the strategies of the teacher in order to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. Chapter 2 – Review of Literature: Teaching Strategies: It is at the foundation levels that children with Dyspraxia have most learning difficulties because their comprehension is average but there level of expression of this comprehension is limited. Therefore it is at this stage that these children have to be trained to express and advance their expression. In short it would be necessary for there to be accommodations to be made in the education system to ensure that the teaching of these children is sufficient. The arguments to creating teaching methods into the mainstream education system at the foundation level are very similar to the arguments of employing disabled persons in the workplace. The first argument will follow the arguments for integration into the workforce and then will consider specific teaching methods. The first main argument is whether there should be differential treatment for the children with Dyspraxia. To understand the extent that the current disability rights are effective one must understand there is a difference between a mere legal right and an inherent (also known as substantive) right. Hohfeld has been the most significant jurisprudential thinker to discuss the difference between the varying types of rights. The focus of Hohfeld’s analysis of rights is from an analytical perspective; the main aim of Hohfeld’s work was to clarify exactly what rights are. Hohfeld’s analysis of rights is split into four different categories which are; claim-right; privilege; power and immunity. These rights have been put together into a grid of entitlements  which enables one to understand the nature and content of rights; which the individual has in varying degrees. It is this clear and precise method that makes Hohfeld’s analysis fundamental to rights interpretation within legal arenas. This exploration is going to argue that this exposition of rights is essential to jurisprudence and understanding the nature of rights. Under English law Hohfeld’s analysis clearly expresses how varying degrees of rights are contained under the Human Rights Act 1998 and do not conflict with parliamentary sovereignty. As Helen Fenwick discusses: â€Å"Under Hohfeld’s view†¦ it becomes clear that, traditionally, most freedoms in the UK were merely liberties; one did no wrong to exercise them, but there was no positive duty on any organ of the state to facilitate them†¦ When the Human Rights Act 1998 came fully into force†¦ many Hohfeldian liberties became rights in Hofeldian terms since†¦ public authorities have been laid under a positive duty to respect them† . Hohfeld’s analysis is that the confusion over the nature of rights has been effectively eliminated. In contrast to the controversies in theorists such as Dworkin , Kymlicka , Kant  and MacKinnon , it does not get trapped into confusing the nature of rights with the justification of rights. If one applies this to problems concerning gender; discrimination; animal; and environmental rights one could actually apply a type of right in order to rectify the legal and moral inequities. Legal and political philosophers have gotten too tied up in justifying rights, that they have confused the meaning of right. Hohfeld has provided an interesting tool in order to level the playing field, because the question concerning the equality of rights is no longer an issue. Instead Hohfeld’s analysis allows for different right-elements to be applied in different situations. Therefore Hohfeld’s analysis can be applied to both legal analysis and moral quandaries, which means that one in addition to clarifying rights can use this analysis as a tool to justifying rights. Hohfeld was very humble in his aims for his analysis of rights, because it has provided more than a tool to clarify rights. For example if one applied this problem to media law where there are conflicts in the right to privacy and the freedom of press, these rights possibly fall into the categories of immunity; claim-right; and privilege. The problem is that they are competing rights and if one applies the level of right, also to the specific facts then the confusion that has happened between courts  would be a lot less likely. In short Hohfeld’s analysis has taken out all the moral quandaries in the nature of rights; and has provided an analytical method to apply to both moral quandaries and the justification of rights. This will become more apparent in the following chapters.   In relation to absolute human rights or substantive rights then these are immunities which the government cannot interfere with; however a mere legal right is a privilege whereby the government has provided disability rights, but there is no need to provide these rights and may be taken away if in the government’s interest. Therefore this illustrates the importance of making disability rights substantive rights but not only in the workplace but also in schools. This means if integration is the best form because it makes such a disability socially acceptable then this should be the method taken. In order to do this there must be specialized teaching methods which the teachers use and have a duty to provide in much the same way that employers have to provide special adaptations for disabled adults. The Learning Disabilities Association of America argues that the student from an early age should be subject to a curriculum that mirrors that of the child without disability, only with â€Å"some accommodations and modifications may be necessary†.  They argue that these modifications should take the form of an Individual Education Programme whereby for students with reading difficulties or expression of comprehension through reading should have a mixture of one-on-one reading with a teacher and should also be provided with texts that are on tape so that they can follow along with the reading material. If the problem is of the memory or the inability to take down information, i.e. motor problems the teacher should provide a taped lesson for the child, teacher and parents to review at a speed whereby the child can than express their comprehension. If the motor skill impede too much then a special software programme through voice should be used. Also children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level may find expression easier by using other forms of expression, i.e. songs, rhymes, dances, tapes etc. Also along the same line to help expression of comprehension and teach how to express properly then using the other senses such as touch should be considered. These are teaching techniques that all children can use therefore this will not impede the other learners at the foundation level; as well as letting the teacher be more innovative and creative as well as building the blocks for the Individual Education Programme of the Dyspraxic child. The Australian Dyspraxic Support Group also advances techniques to help the child express their comprehension of the educative material. This group does not seem to indicate that there should be either specialized teaching or integration into the mainstream education system at the foundational levels. The aim seems to be to help the child and ensure that their intelligence is not impeded by stereotypes with putting the right teaching techniques with child. Therefore if it is motor based Dyspraxia it is to specialize teaching in developing the organization and capability of the planned expression of comprehension in the ways that the child can. If it is verbal Dyspraxia then development of the speech processes and other forms of communication should be developed and finally if it is oral Dyspraxia then written forms of communication should be used and also attempts to develop speech skills should be introduced. Therefore the use of sensory and taped materials would will really benefit the development of the child at the foundation level. Also to have integration will expose the child to mimic and use ways of communication that isolation would be unable to do so.  Therefore one can infer that mainstream integration at the foundation levels would be the best approach. Belinda Hill advances in her article and research for the Dyspraxia Association of Ireland that technological aides can be used to integrate children with verbal and oral Dyspraxia. These aides include speaking computers, machines that enhance speech, machines that have a set response when a specific button is pushed, communication through symbols. These aides will help a child integrate and not feel lost in a world of communication. This would provide confidence and social development of a child which isolated education could not provide.   The Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand advances a lesser advanced strategy but focuses on the necessity of the child be integrated into the mainstream educational system from the foundation level as their research shows that the best development of a child with this disability is to base the education as every other child’s education the classroom teacher. The teacher would have to use a slightly different technique but evaluation and development should be on similar lines as other children. In their guidelines in what the teacher can do is as follows: Figure One – What the Teacher can do: Make allowances, lower expectations in spite of child seeming bright enough. Allow more time. Adjust quantity of work. Give gentle reminders. Good teaching practices win every time. Listen to parent, who knows this child better than anyone ever will. Break tasks down into more manageable parts simplify! Dont assume the child has understood. Give single instructions rather than a string because If you treat the child the same as the others, his failure rate will be immeasurably higher than it needs to be. He knows that he is not the same; a higher failure rate means a very much lower self esteem, etc., etc. The key factor that this table shows is the child should not be segregated as it may reduce the self-esteem of the child and cause an inferiority complex. This will be interesting to contrast with the view of those who advance home schooling who believe that main stream education is disadvantaging children of all developmental elements. This will be the focus of the discussion, with a brief review of the literature in the following section. Yet the teaching techniques point to integration is possible maybe even favorable to that of specialized teaching. The key point is that integration should include an Individual Education Programme and understanding of the disability much in the same way that adaptations and understanding are essential to adaptations in the disability workplace as the following legal cases will illustrate. Therefore such a duty should be imposed on teachers for modifications if employers have a duty to their disabled employees; otherwise the arguments about the degradation of mainstream education will succeed. The issue of inequality in the workplace has long been established, along with the disabled because neither has been seen to be fully human in the same way as a man, because women may become pregnant and want maternity needs and the disabled person may need special needs or possibly fall ill. In reality able-bodied men may need paternity needs or fall ill, however this is not seen as likely for them and they provide the marker for how all other persons should be treated, even if disabled . This seems to be irrational thinking, but still a major concern with employers today, especially in relation to promotions and redundancies , yet the EAT has ruled that redundancies cannot occur due to disability, the question of reasonable adaptations have to be taken into account . The extent of reasonable adaptations was questioned in Kenny v Hampshire Constabulary  where it was determined that they are only reasonable in the doing of the job and easily adaptable but not to personal needs. In addition the employer has a defence of justification  against reasonable adaptation which makes the notion of reasonable adaptation pointless and returns to the objective marker as being the able bodied man , because the reasonable adaptation cases are too contradictory. This was recognized in Heinz v Kendrick  were it made a positive move forward in ensuring disability rights. . In 2001 this seems to have been tightened with the Cosgrove Case  where it was held that â€Å"an employer who fails to consider making adjustments as required by DDA 1995 s.6 cannot escape liability for that failure simply on the basis that the disabled employee was unable to suggest an appropriate adjustment.† It has also been question what stipulates disabled, one test is the evidence of medical experts and not the opinion of the employer and tribunal; hence iterating an objective medical test . In Goodwin v Patent Office  it was held that: The Tribunal was wrong to focus on the fact that Mr Goodwin could cope unaided at home, and to assume from this that he therefore fell outside the definition of disability in the Act. The evidence was that Mr Goodwin was unable to hold a normal conversation, behaved strangely at times and had significantly impaired concentration. All this clearly pointed, on a broad and purposive interpretation of the Act, to his being disabled under the law. In Cruickshank v VAW Motorcars  a test was created to include various forms of disability, in addition to include the subjectivity of the individual as different disabilities or illness affect individuals in different manner; so the effect of the individual as well as the disability at the time of discrimination is taken into account. These cases should be taken into the education system to ensure along the same vein that teachers are endeavoring to integrate Dyspraxic children into the foundational levels of the education system, rather than leaving them on the side. This is key to the self-esteem and the development of a child who is of average or above intelligence but has problems in expression. In order to do this the child needs to be afforded substantive rights to appropriate education, much in the same way that the argument from home schoolers bases their argument; however as the discussion will illustrate the home-schooling or specialized education may be the only route if the appropriate attention and development of the education system is not attended to. The following section will consider some of the ethical literature with the problem of integration, if appropriate teaching methods and educational standard is not being afforded to children at the foundation levels (and beyond).   Problems with Integration: The results may prove that it is not impossible for children with Dyspraxia to be integrated into the mainstream education system. Yet as the results also suggest although it is possible to integrate children with Dyspraxia into the mainstream education system it may not be in the best interests of the child. Also the other children in the system and the teacher have to be considered because if the teacher is not properly educated in teaching children with disabilities this means that the child will not receive the benefits of the integration, also either this child or the rest of the children will be deprived of the teacher’s attention. Also this may also add further stresses on the teacher’s resources and may impose too many duties on the teacher. As Aquinas points out the most important aspect about learning and education is self-development the attainment of the individual’s perfection. This cannot always be dictated by mainstream education; therefore this di scussion will introduce this angle into the conversation, which will be focused on the discussion. The union of soul and body is no chastisement of the soul but a salutary bond through which the human soul will reach its full perfection. This is not a theory forged expressly for the particular case of the soul. Rather, it is the case which is necessarily governed according to metaphysical principles, and their scope is universal. The less perfect is ordered toward the more perfect as toward its end; it is for it; not against it†¦ Each creature exists for its own act and its own perfection†¦. Individuals exist for the perfection of the universe†¦ The reason for the existence of a determined substance or determined mode of existence is never to be found in an evil but in a good. This analysis of the human, as represented by Aquinas, as argued by Gilson portrays a notion of a higher purpose for each individual. This purpose links to the soul and is an integral part of God’s creation. Aquinas’ theory is entrenched in religious thought from the Catholic Church of the 13th Century; where science, theology, philosophy and politics where within the church’s domain and the central belief is that man was created for God’s purpose and life and death was His domain. The following exploration will consider the theological and philosophical concerns of Aquinas in relation to the individual and the idea of the body and life and attaining knowledge through education. The theological concern of Aquinas’ theory is the attainment of perfection, because in the nature of being each is at a different level of perfection with God as the Supreme Being. This is a very important part of Aquinas’ five ways, the basis of his cosmological and teleological arguments. Therefore this provides a modicum of self-determination at the hands of God; however humanity unlike the rest of God’s creations has been given freewill in order to attain a higher level of understanding and development to become further within the image of God, such as the occurrence within the Garden of Eden and the eating of the apple. In short Aquinas’ theory demonstrates that humanity was given freewill and the ability to attain knowledge in order to achieve the determined level of knowledge, perfection and understanding akin to the level of God; it is this that creates man in God’s image and it is such understanding which allows for the furtherance of scientific discovery; however there are problems when humanity intervenes into the sanctity of life and the determination of life and death; which is the domain of the Necessary Being, the Creator. Therefore how does this apply to schooling and education? The answer is specialized and integrated schooling is the best method for attaining this self-perfection, if non-integrated schooling is better then the arguments surrounding the notion of social development is null and void. As this chapter of the discussion will illustrate the method that is better method for children to retain knowledge and attain the goal of perfection. This discussion will aim to introduce the validity of integrating into mainstream education at the foundation level, because if is the method that the government wishes to take it should take into consideration not only if the teaching methods are available but whether this is in the best interests of the child especially when there are so many social problems in school; if this is going to hinder the child’s development, especially one with a learning difficulty as Dyspraxia. So considering the arguments of cultural relativists will hopefully put the problem of mainstream integration into context because it takes away the specific needs of the culture; however this can be applied in the context where culture can be replaced by the society/community of children with Dyspraxia. The arguments from cultural relativists are the main set of criticisms of universal human rights, i.e. all laws and human development is focused on the rules and traditions of each culture and society. The first and most basic of rights – freedom and autonomy in a secular state – is criticized as very Eurocentric and fails to allow for cultural differences.  The main part of universal human rights theory is based upon morality and the cultural relativist would argue that morality is subject to the culture, history and religious founding of each society.  Therefore ‘there are no human rights absolutes, that the principles which we may use for judging behaviour are relative to the society in which we are raised, that there is infinite cultural variability and that all cultures are morally equal or valid’.   This argument undermines the basis of all human rights theory because they all stem from the basis that there is a universal morality.  Also it would view non-citizens as an area that each culture would deal with its own cultural norms.  The main argument against universality in the 20th and 21st Centuries comes from the resistance to Western Economic Imperialism. Shestack  illustrates Claude Levi-Strauss argument in the following manner – all cultures and their differences need to be respected as equally moral to that of the West and that the Universality angle is just another attempt of the West imposing its morality on other cultures, which he believed must be stopped as other cultures should be allowed to develop and evolve naturally.   Most would agree that the West should not impose its views, governance and culture upon other cultures.  Human rights theorists are arguing that morality is outside and transcends these human constructions and is common to all persons, and not part of the development of a society, as cultural relativists would argue.  Is it fair that in the name of cultural identity that repression should be allowed causing ‘an obligatory homogeneity and diminishing the place of the individual in the calculus of identity politics’?  The most common answer would be no, no-one is saying that cultural identity should be obliterated instead that it is not part of the transcendental nature of the morality of basic human rights and freedoms.  These rights and freedoms are not there to suppress culture but should be the logical ends for a culture to aspire to.  As Shestack  argues that violations of individual’s rights are not affirmed in any valid culture and in fact the rel igions and culture basis itself on acting for the good of its people and ‘most confirmed relativist scholars are repulsed at practises which are highly coercive and abusive and accept that at least some human rights values are absolute’.   However, on the whole, the rights and development of each individual from a child is based upon the cultural norms, i.e. development is relative. The main attack on Universalism is the argument of cultural relativism; it has been argued that there are no universals and all rights are from the construction of society and culture.  Therefore if women are treated inferior to their male counterparts, this is the construction of that society and the Western ideals have no right to interfere, as long as the women consent. This begs the question because there is no consent if a system has been biased against your identity for generations. The cultural relativist argument is so bound in the fact that basic universality comes from the Western Liberal tradition, that it has not taken time out to look at Eastern cultures and what they say are basic to the human being, although that discourse may not be based on autonomy or individuality, certain key ideas come through. Although not all cultures speak in the discourse of autonomy, arguably they do have the concept of equality and respect that indicates there are rights outside the culture and afforded to people on the essence of being human. Therefore if one assumes that culture equates to the community of Dyspraxic children then it is entirely possible that their needs will not be met in mainstream education. The discussion will further this and aim to show that this is not always the case with respect to the rights of the child and the rights of the teacher in mind. Chapter 3 – Design of Study: This study is considering the approaches as well as the justification of integrating children with Dyspraxia in to the mainstream education system as the foundation level, as opposed to giving specialized teaching and integrating at a later stage. In order to do this is will discuss the practical adaptation to include children at the foundation level by considering a range of sources throughout the world that have provided teaching methods for children with Dyspraxia. These sources are internet based as the internet gives the widest range and up to date information on the teaching of children with Dyspraxia. This study has also considered the benefits of fitting children in the mainstream education system and asking the question whether this is in the best interests of the child, especially with the amount of literature suggesting that other forms of schooling, such as home schooling is a better option especially in a world where morals are degrading. This information is primarily from North America as a lot more home schooling is undertaken, in addition when considering the best interests of the child it is important to consider their rights and choices; as well as the parents, i.e. is it right to impose integration into the foundation system if it is not in the best interests of the child? Therefore an ethical, legal and social perspective has been considered. The rest of this study will now consider whether the aforementioned literature provides a system to whether the teaching methods of integrating children with Dyspraxia would be successful and even so would it be in the best inter ests of the child.   Chapter 4 – Methodology: This discussion will be from a theoretical level comparing and contrasting the different avenues presented to the state on the question whether to impose teaching methods to include children Dyspraxia into mainstream foundation curriculum or to provide specialized teaching. This discussion has assumed that this routine questioning necessarily imposes such a duty therefore the discussion surrounds the legal and ethical consequences of such a duty. This discussion is from a theoretical perspective and has not dealt with quantitative data; rather it deals with a qualitative approach considering the human rights, ethical and legal questions that arise from imposing teaching strategies to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. It presupposes that such teaching methods if beneficial to the child will be imposed by the state. It excludes the possibility that the state will not impose these teaching even if it is the most beneficial course of action to the child. Also it does not include a quantitative and statistical approach to the question. The search for studies and appropriate research material is done via identifying four types of discussion area; the teaching methods that are available to the teacher; the impacts of the child’s rights of imposing integration v the child rights if the child experiences specialized teaching; the legal implications of imposing new teaching methods and integration; and ethical considerations. The method of enquiry is as follows examining the problems and benefits of mainstream integration for all children, which may be exacerbated if the child is suffering from Dyspraxia. Then it considers the teaching methods that mainstream integration may utilize. Finally it will consider some of the legal, ethical and social problems of such integration; whereby a duty is imposed by the state to use teaching methods to integrate children into mainstream education at the foundation level curriculum. One also must consider the effects of these teaching methods on the children without the learning disability and the effects and possible additional stress on the teacher. This leads to considerations and consequences in the areas of human rights, the law and ethics will be the focus of the discussion. Chapter 5 – Statement of Results: The results point to that as long as the appropriate teaching methods are being applied then integration is the best solution. Yet if the education system is degrading as the following proponents of home schooling advance then it is not in the best interests of the child to integrate at the foundation level because this essential to the whole of the child’s educational future. The methods range from the simple, i.e. more attention, patience to aiding with reading and other methods of expression to the more technological, i.e. special computers, tape recordings and machines. The problem lies in whether the teacher can get these specialized technologies or has the time to spend extra time with a specific child. This may have a detrimental effect on the other children in the class; however if this special attention is not given then the child will be restricted and hindered and the most foundational years and methods of learning have been lost. This would then lead to the support of specialized teaching that home schoolers purport. The following discussion will explore this further.   Chapter 6 – Discussion: Integrating the child in the foundation level of education may or may not be beneficial to the child as it may hinder the long-term education of the child. Therefore prior to exploring the teaching strategies necessary to integrate children with Dyspraxia in the foundation level of the national curriculum, because if these teaching methods hinder the child’s development then the teaching strategies have failed. In order to do this the literature surrounding the benefits of mainstream education, over specialized or home-schooling will be explored in the following discussion. Benefits v Disadvantages of Integration: Human beings have been sharing information and skills, and passing along to children whatever they knew, for about a thousand years now. Along the way they have built some very complicated and highly skilled societies. During all those years there were very few teachers in the sense of people whose only work was teaching others what they knew. And until very recently there were no people at all who were trained in teaching as such. People always understood, sensibly enough, that before you could teach something you had to know it yourself. But only very recently did human beings get the extraordinary notion that in order to be able to teach what you knew; you had to spend years being taught how to teach . Holt is an ardent believer in home schooling and proposes it has no effect on social development; rather it is a better method because it teaches children the reality of life, i.e. the juggling lifestyle with work and learning. In fact Holt proposes that it is the void of institutionalism of education th Strategies to Integrate Children with Dyspraxia Strategies to Integrate Children with Dyspraxia Dyspraxia is a learning disability that comes in three forms verbal, motor and oral whereby the child may have average or above average intelligence but the brain works in a different manner it is hard for the child to demonstrate their knowledge, i.e. reading comprehension may be affected because the processing of the information is different, as with verbal and/or written/symbolic comprehension. The problem with such a learning difficulty makes it hard for teachers to evaluate the progress and intelligence of the child and normal learning assignments and exams may prove an impossible form of evaluation. Therefore it is essential that the teacher works with the child to understand the learning processes of the child, attempting to provide methods that will either enable the child to take part in normal forms of evaluation or endeavor to produce an alternative form, but equivalent to the mainstream evaluation. Dyspraxia can be remedied in part by retraining and advancing the child’s method of expressing their comprehension and evaluation. This is a pertinent role of the teacher, because to separate the child may have adverse effects as the child can comprehend internally the information only it expression is less advanced. Therefore this discussion will explore some theories of teaching methods comparing and contrasting the benefits of one-on-one teaching to that of mainstream teaching at the foundation level. It will also highlight the strategies of the teacher in order to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. Chapter 2 – Review of Literature: Teaching Strategies: It is at the foundation levels that children with Dyspraxia have most learning difficulties because their comprehension is average but there level of expression of this comprehension is limited. Therefore it is at this stage that these children have to be trained to express and advance their expression. In short it would be necessary for there to be accommodations to be made in the education system to ensure that the teaching of these children is sufficient. The arguments to creating teaching methods into the mainstream education system at the foundation level are very similar to the arguments of employing disabled persons in the workplace. The first argument will follow the arguments for integration into the workforce and then will consider specific teaching methods. The first main argument is whether there should be differential treatment for the children with Dyspraxia. To understand the extent that the current disability rights are effective one must understand there is a difference between a mere legal right and an inherent (also known as substantive) right. Hohfeld has been the most significant jurisprudential thinker to discuss the difference between the varying types of rights. The focus of Hohfeld’s analysis of rights is from an analytical perspective; the main aim of Hohfeld’s work was to clarify exactly what rights are. Hohfeld’s analysis of rights is split into four different categories which are; claim-right; privilege; power and immunity. These rights have been put together into a grid of entitlements  which enables one to understand the nature and content of rights; which the individual has in varying degrees. It is this clear and precise method that makes Hohfeld’s analysis fundamental to rights interpretation within legal arenas. This exploration is going to argue that this exposition of rights is essential to jurisprudence and understanding the nature of rights. Under English law Hohfeld’s analysis clearly expresses how varying degrees of rights are contained under the Human Rights Act 1998 and do not conflict with parliamentary sovereignty. As Helen Fenwick discusses: â€Å"Under Hohfeld’s view†¦ it becomes clear that, traditionally, most freedoms in the UK were merely liberties; one did no wrong to exercise them, but there was no positive duty on any organ of the state to facilitate them†¦ When the Human Rights Act 1998 came fully into force†¦ many Hohfeldian liberties became rights in Hofeldian terms since†¦ public authorities have been laid under a positive duty to respect them† . Hohfeld’s analysis is that the confusion over the nature of rights has been effectively eliminated. In contrast to the controversies in theorists such as Dworkin , Kymlicka , Kant  and MacKinnon , it does not get trapped into confusing the nature of rights with the justification of rights. If one applies this to problems concerning gender; discrimination; animal; and environmental rights one could actually apply a type of right in order to rectify the legal and moral inequities. Legal and political philosophers have gotten too tied up in justifying rights, that they have confused the meaning of right. Hohfeld has provided an interesting tool in order to level the playing field, because the question concerning the equality of rights is no longer an issue. Instead Hohfeld’s analysis allows for different right-elements to be applied in different situations. Therefore Hohfeld’s analysis can be applied to both legal analysis and moral quandaries, which means that one in addition to clarifying rights can use this analysis as a tool to justifying rights. Hohfeld was very humble in his aims for his analysis of rights, because it has provided more than a tool to clarify rights. For example if one applied this problem to media law where there are conflicts in the right to privacy and the freedom of press, these rights possibly fall into the categories of immunity; claim-right; and privilege. The problem is that they are competing rights and if one applies the level of right, also to the specific facts then the confusion that has happened between courts  would be a lot less likely. In short Hohfeld’s analysis has taken out all the moral quandaries in the nature of rights; and has provided an analytical method to apply to both moral quandaries and the justification of rights. This will become more apparent in the following chapters.   In relation to absolute human rights or substantive rights then these are immunities which the government cannot interfere with; however a mere legal right is a privilege whereby the government has provided disability rights, but there is no need to provide these rights and may be taken away if in the government’s interest. Therefore this illustrates the importance of making disability rights substantive rights but not only in the workplace but also in schools. This means if integration is the best form because it makes such a disability socially acceptable then this should be the method taken. In order to do this there must be specialized teaching methods which the teachers use and have a duty to provide in much the same way that employers have to provide special adaptations for disabled adults. The Learning Disabilities Association of America argues that the student from an early age should be subject to a curriculum that mirrors that of the child without disability, only with â€Å"some accommodations and modifications may be necessary†.  They argue that these modifications should take the form of an Individual Education Programme whereby for students with reading difficulties or expression of comprehension through reading should have a mixture of one-on-one reading with a teacher and should also be provided with texts that are on tape so that they can follow along with the reading material. If the problem is of the memory or the inability to take down information, i.e. motor problems the teacher should provide a taped lesson for the child, teacher and parents to review at a speed whereby the child can than express their comprehension. If the motor skill impede too much then a special software programme through voice should be used. Also children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level may find expression easier by using other forms of expression, i.e. songs, rhymes, dances, tapes etc. Also along the same line to help expression of comprehension and teach how to express properly then using the other senses such as touch should be considered. These are teaching techniques that all children can use therefore this will not impede the other learners at the foundation level; as well as letting the teacher be more innovative and creative as well as building the blocks for the Individual Education Programme of the Dyspraxic child. The Australian Dyspraxic Support Group also advances techniques to help the child express their comprehension of the educative material. This group does not seem to indicate that there should be either specialized teaching or integration into the mainstream education system at the foundational levels. The aim seems to be to help the child and ensure that their intelligence is not impeded by stereotypes with putting the right teaching techniques with child. Therefore if it is motor based Dyspraxia it is to specialize teaching in developing the organization and capability of the planned expression of comprehension in the ways that the child can. If it is verbal Dyspraxia then development of the speech processes and other forms of communication should be developed and finally if it is oral Dyspraxia then written forms of communication should be used and also attempts to develop speech skills should be introduced. Therefore the use of sensory and taped materials would will really benefit the development of the child at the foundation level. Also to have integration will expose the child to mimic and use ways of communication that isolation would be unable to do so.  Therefore one can infer that mainstream integration at the foundation levels would be the best approach. Belinda Hill advances in her article and research for the Dyspraxia Association of Ireland that technological aides can be used to integrate children with verbal and oral Dyspraxia. These aides include speaking computers, machines that enhance speech, machines that have a set response when a specific button is pushed, communication through symbols. These aides will help a child integrate and not feel lost in a world of communication. This would provide confidence and social development of a child which isolated education could not provide.   The Dyspraxia Association of New Zealand advances a lesser advanced strategy but focuses on the necessity of the child be integrated into the mainstream educational system from the foundation level as their research shows that the best development of a child with this disability is to base the education as every other child’s education the classroom teacher. The teacher would have to use a slightly different technique but evaluation and development should be on similar lines as other children. In their guidelines in what the teacher can do is as follows: Figure One – What the Teacher can do: Make allowances, lower expectations in spite of child seeming bright enough. Allow more time. Adjust quantity of work. Give gentle reminders. Good teaching practices win every time. Listen to parent, who knows this child better than anyone ever will. Break tasks down into more manageable parts simplify! Dont assume the child has understood. Give single instructions rather than a string because If you treat the child the same as the others, his failure rate will be immeasurably higher than it needs to be. He knows that he is not the same; a higher failure rate means a very much lower self esteem, etc., etc. The key factor that this table shows is the child should not be segregated as it may reduce the self-esteem of the child and cause an inferiority complex. This will be interesting to contrast with the view of those who advance home schooling who believe that main stream education is disadvantaging children of all developmental elements. This will be the focus of the discussion, with a brief review of the literature in the following section. Yet the teaching techniques point to integration is possible maybe even favorable to that of specialized teaching. The key point is that integration should include an Individual Education Programme and understanding of the disability much in the same way that adaptations and understanding are essential to adaptations in the disability workplace as the following legal cases will illustrate. Therefore such a duty should be imposed on teachers for modifications if employers have a duty to their disabled employees; otherwise the arguments about the degradation of mainstream education will succeed. The issue of inequality in the workplace has long been established, along with the disabled because neither has been seen to be fully human in the same way as a man, because women may become pregnant and want maternity needs and the disabled person may need special needs or possibly fall ill. In reality able-bodied men may need paternity needs or fall ill, however this is not seen as likely for them and they provide the marker for how all other persons should be treated, even if disabled . This seems to be irrational thinking, but still a major concern with employers today, especially in relation to promotions and redundancies , yet the EAT has ruled that redundancies cannot occur due to disability, the question of reasonable adaptations have to be taken into account . The extent of reasonable adaptations was questioned in Kenny v Hampshire Constabulary  where it was determined that they are only reasonable in the doing of the job and easily adaptable but not to personal needs. In addition the employer has a defence of justification  against reasonable adaptation which makes the notion of reasonable adaptation pointless and returns to the objective marker as being the able bodied man , because the reasonable adaptation cases are too contradictory. This was recognized in Heinz v Kendrick  were it made a positive move forward in ensuring disability rights. . In 2001 this seems to have been tightened with the Cosgrove Case  where it was held that â€Å"an employer who fails to consider making adjustments as required by DDA 1995 s.6 cannot escape liability for that failure simply on the basis that the disabled employee was unable to suggest an appropriate adjustment.† It has also been question what stipulates disabled, one test is the evidence of medical experts and not the opinion of the employer and tribunal; hence iterating an objective medical test . In Goodwin v Patent Office  it was held that: The Tribunal was wrong to focus on the fact that Mr Goodwin could cope unaided at home, and to assume from this that he therefore fell outside the definition of disability in the Act. The evidence was that Mr Goodwin was unable to hold a normal conversation, behaved strangely at times and had significantly impaired concentration. All this clearly pointed, on a broad and purposive interpretation of the Act, to his being disabled under the law. In Cruickshank v VAW Motorcars  a test was created to include various forms of disability, in addition to include the subjectivity of the individual as different disabilities or illness affect individuals in different manner; so the effect of the individual as well as the disability at the time of discrimination is taken into account. These cases should be taken into the education system to ensure along the same vein that teachers are endeavoring to integrate Dyspraxic children into the foundational levels of the education system, rather than leaving them on the side. This is key to the self-esteem and the development of a child who is of average or above intelligence but has problems in expression. In order to do this the child needs to be afforded substantive rights to appropriate education, much in the same way that the argument from home schoolers bases their argument; however as the discussion will illustrate the home-schooling or specialized education may be the only route if the appropriate attention and development of the education system is not attended to. The following section will consider some of the ethical literature with the problem of integration, if appropriate teaching methods and educational standard is not being afforded to children at the foundation levels (and beyond).   Problems with Integration: The results may prove that it is not impossible for children with Dyspraxia to be integrated into the mainstream education system. Yet as the results also suggest although it is possible to integrate children with Dyspraxia into the mainstream education system it may not be in the best interests of the child. Also the other children in the system and the teacher have to be considered because if the teacher is not properly educated in teaching children with disabilities this means that the child will not receive the benefits of the integration, also either this child or the rest of the children will be deprived of the teacher’s attention. Also this may also add further stresses on the teacher’s resources and may impose too many duties on the teacher. As Aquinas points out the most important aspect about learning and education is self-development the attainment of the individual’s perfection. This cannot always be dictated by mainstream education; therefore this di scussion will introduce this angle into the conversation, which will be focused on the discussion. The union of soul and body is no chastisement of the soul but a salutary bond through which the human soul will reach its full perfection. This is not a theory forged expressly for the particular case of the soul. Rather, it is the case which is necessarily governed according to metaphysical principles, and their scope is universal. The less perfect is ordered toward the more perfect as toward its end; it is for it; not against it†¦ Each creature exists for its own act and its own perfection†¦. Individuals exist for the perfection of the universe†¦ The reason for the existence of a determined substance or determined mode of existence is never to be found in an evil but in a good. This analysis of the human, as represented by Aquinas, as argued by Gilson portrays a notion of a higher purpose for each individual. This purpose links to the soul and is an integral part of God’s creation. Aquinas’ theory is entrenched in religious thought from the Catholic Church of the 13th Century; where science, theology, philosophy and politics where within the church’s domain and the central belief is that man was created for God’s purpose and life and death was His domain. The following exploration will consider the theological and philosophical concerns of Aquinas in relation to the individual and the idea of the body and life and attaining knowledge through education. The theological concern of Aquinas’ theory is the attainment of perfection, because in the nature of being each is at a different level of perfection with God as the Supreme Being. This is a very important part of Aquinas’ five ways, the basis of his cosmological and teleological arguments. Therefore this provides a modicum of self-determination at the hands of God; however humanity unlike the rest of God’s creations has been given freewill in order to attain a higher level of understanding and development to become further within the image of God, such as the occurrence within the Garden of Eden and the eating of the apple. In short Aquinas’ theory demonstrates that humanity was given freewill and the ability to attain knowledge in order to achieve the determined level of knowledge, perfection and understanding akin to the level of God; it is this that creates man in God’s image and it is such understanding which allows for the furtherance of scientific discovery; however there are problems when humanity intervenes into the sanctity of life and the determination of life and death; which is the domain of the Necessary Being, the Creator. Therefore how does this apply to schooling and education? The answer is specialized and integrated schooling is the best method for attaining this self-perfection, if non-integrated schooling is better then the arguments surrounding the notion of social development is null and void. As this chapter of the discussion will illustrate the method that is better method for children to retain knowledge and attain the goal of perfection. This discussion will aim to introduce the validity of integrating into mainstream education at the foundation level, because if is the method that the government wishes to take it should take into consideration not only if the teaching methods are available but whether this is in the best interests of the child especially when there are so many social problems in school; if this is going to hinder the child’s development, especially one with a learning difficulty as Dyspraxia. So considering the arguments of cultural relativists will hopefully put the problem of mainstream integration into context because it takes away the specific needs of the culture; however this can be applied in the context where culture can be replaced by the society/community of children with Dyspraxia. The arguments from cultural relativists are the main set of criticisms of universal human rights, i.e. all laws and human development is focused on the rules and traditions of each culture and society. The first and most basic of rights – freedom and autonomy in a secular state – is criticized as very Eurocentric and fails to allow for cultural differences.  The main part of universal human rights theory is based upon morality and the cultural relativist would argue that morality is subject to the culture, history and religious founding of each society.  Therefore ‘there are no human rights absolutes, that the principles which we may use for judging behaviour are relative to the society in which we are raised, that there is infinite cultural variability and that all cultures are morally equal or valid’.   This argument undermines the basis of all human rights theory because they all stem from the basis that there is a universal morality.  Also it would view non-citizens as an area that each culture would deal with its own cultural norms.  The main argument against universality in the 20th and 21st Centuries comes from the resistance to Western Economic Imperialism. Shestack  illustrates Claude Levi-Strauss argument in the following manner – all cultures and their differences need to be respected as equally moral to that of the West and that the Universality angle is just another attempt of the West imposing its morality on other cultures, which he believed must be stopped as other cultures should be allowed to develop and evolve naturally.   Most would agree that the West should not impose its views, governance and culture upon other cultures.  Human rights theorists are arguing that morality is outside and transcends these human constructions and is common to all persons, and not part of the development of a society, as cultural relativists would argue.  Is it fair that in the name of cultural identity that repression should be allowed causing ‘an obligatory homogeneity and diminishing the place of the individual in the calculus of identity politics’?  The most common answer would be no, no-one is saying that cultural identity should be obliterated instead that it is not part of the transcendental nature of the morality of basic human rights and freedoms.  These rights and freedoms are not there to suppress culture but should be the logical ends for a culture to aspire to.  As Shestack  argues that violations of individual’s rights are not affirmed in any valid culture and in fact the rel igions and culture basis itself on acting for the good of its people and ‘most confirmed relativist scholars are repulsed at practises which are highly coercive and abusive and accept that at least some human rights values are absolute’.   However, on the whole, the rights and development of each individual from a child is based upon the cultural norms, i.e. development is relative. The main attack on Universalism is the argument of cultural relativism; it has been argued that there are no universals and all rights are from the construction of society and culture.  Therefore if women are treated inferior to their male counterparts, this is the construction of that society and the Western ideals have no right to interfere, as long as the women consent. This begs the question because there is no consent if a system has been biased against your identity for generations. The cultural relativist argument is so bound in the fact that basic universality comes from the Western Liberal tradition, that it has not taken time out to look at Eastern cultures and what they say are basic to the human being, although that discourse may not be based on autonomy or individuality, certain key ideas come through. Although not all cultures speak in the discourse of autonomy, arguably they do have the concept of equality and respect that indicates there are rights outside the culture and afforded to people on the essence of being human. Therefore if one assumes that culture equates to the community of Dyspraxic children then it is entirely possible that their needs will not be met in mainstream education. The discussion will further this and aim to show that this is not always the case with respect to the rights of the child and the rights of the teacher in mind. Chapter 3 – Design of Study: This study is considering the approaches as well as the justification of integrating children with Dyspraxia in to the mainstream education system as the foundation level, as opposed to giving specialized teaching and integrating at a later stage. In order to do this is will discuss the practical adaptation to include children at the foundation level by considering a range of sources throughout the world that have provided teaching methods for children with Dyspraxia. These sources are internet based as the internet gives the widest range and up to date information on the teaching of children with Dyspraxia. This study has also considered the benefits of fitting children in the mainstream education system and asking the question whether this is in the best interests of the child, especially with the amount of literature suggesting that other forms of schooling, such as home schooling is a better option especially in a world where morals are degrading. This information is primarily from North America as a lot more home schooling is undertaken, in addition when considering the best interests of the child it is important to consider their rights and choices; as well as the parents, i.e. is it right to impose integration into the foundation system if it is not in the best interests of the child? Therefore an ethical, legal and social perspective has been considered. The rest of this study will now consider whether the aforementioned literature provides a system to whether the teaching methods of integrating children with Dyspraxia would be successful and even so would it be in the best inter ests of the child.   Chapter 4 – Methodology: This discussion will be from a theoretical level comparing and contrasting the different avenues presented to the state on the question whether to impose teaching methods to include children Dyspraxia into mainstream foundation curriculum or to provide specialized teaching. This discussion has assumed that this routine questioning necessarily imposes such a duty therefore the discussion surrounds the legal and ethical consequences of such a duty. This discussion is from a theoretical perspective and has not dealt with quantitative data; rather it deals with a qualitative approach considering the human rights, ethical and legal questions that arise from imposing teaching strategies to integrate children with Dyspraxia at the foundation level. It presupposes that such teaching methods if beneficial to the child will be imposed by the state. It excludes the possibility that the state will not impose these teaching even if it is the most beneficial course of action to the child. Also it does not include a quantitative and statistical approach to the question. The search for studies and appropriate research material is done via identifying four types of discussion area; the teaching methods that are available to the teacher; the impacts of the child’s rights of imposing integration v the child rights if the child experiences specialized teaching; the legal implications of imposing new teaching methods and integration; and ethical considerations. The method of enquiry is as follows examining the problems and benefits of mainstream integration for all children, which may be exacerbated if the child is suffering from Dyspraxia. Then it considers the teaching methods that mainstream integration may utilize. Finally it will consider some of the legal, ethical and social problems of such integration; whereby a duty is imposed by the state to use teaching methods to integrate children into mainstream education at the foundation level curriculum. One also must consider the effects of these teaching methods on the children without the learning disability and the effects and possible additional stress on the teacher. This leads to considerations and consequences in the areas of human rights, the law and ethics will be the focus of the discussion. Chapter 5 – Statement of Results: The results point to that as long as the appropriate teaching methods are being applied then integration is the best solution. Yet if the education system is degrading as the following proponents of home schooling advance then it is not in the best interests of the child to integrate at the foundation level because this essential to the whole of the child’s educational future. The methods range from the simple, i.e. more attention, patience to aiding with reading and other methods of expression to the more technological, i.e. special computers, tape recordings and machines. The problem lies in whether the teacher can get these specialized technologies or has the time to spend extra time with a specific child. This may have a detrimental effect on the other children in the class; however if this special attention is not given then the child will be restricted and hindered and the most foundational years and methods of learning have been lost. This would then lead to the support of specialized teaching that home schoolers purport. The following discussion will explore this further.   Chapter 6 – Discussion: Integrating the child in the foundation level of education may or may not be beneficial to the child as it may hinder the long-term education of the child. Therefore prior to exploring the teaching strategies necessary to integrate children with Dyspraxia in the foundation level of the national curriculum, because if these teaching methods hinder the child’s development then the teaching strategies have failed. In order to do this the literature surrounding the benefits of mainstream education, over specialized or home-schooling will be explored in the following discussion. Benefits v Disadvantages of Integration: Human beings have been sharing information and skills, and passing along to children whatever they knew, for about a thousand years now. Along the way they have built some very complicated and highly skilled societies. During all those years there were very few teachers in the sense of people whose only work was teaching others what they knew. And until very recently there were no people at all who were trained in teaching as such. People always understood, sensibly enough, that before you could teach something you had to know it yourself. But only very recently did human beings get the extraordinary notion that in order to be able to teach what you knew; you had to spend years being taught how to teach . Holt is an ardent believer in home schooling and proposes it has no effect on social development; rather it is a better method because it teaches children the reality of life, i.e. the juggling lifestyle with work and learning. In fact Holt proposes that it is the void of institutionalism of education th